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		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: 🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕�&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
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		<author><name>2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7</name></author>	</entry>

	<entry>
		<id>//en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furnavia</id>
		<title>Furnavia</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furnavia"/>
				<updated>2023-09-21T04:42:55Z</updated>
		
		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: 🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕🖕�&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
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		<author><name>2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7</name></author>	</entry>

	<entry>
		<id>//en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furpocalypse</id>
		<title>Furpocalypse</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furpocalypse"/>
				<updated>2023-09-21T04:42:13Z</updated>
		
		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: DoN't RePlAcE tHe PaGeS&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬜⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟫🟫🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟨🟨⬛🟨⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛🟨🟫🟫🟫🟨⬛⬛⬜⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟫🟫🟫🟨⬛⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟫🟫🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟦⬛🟨🟨🟫🟫🟫🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛🟦🟦🟦🟦⬛🟨🟫🟫⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬛🟨⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦⬛🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟫🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟦🟦🟦⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟫🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟫🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬛🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟫🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬛⬜🟦🟦⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜🟦⬜⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨🟫🟨🟨⬛⬜⬛⬛⬛🟨⬛⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬛🟦⬛🟦⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜🟦⬛🟦⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟨🟨⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛🟨⬛⬛⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬛⬜🟦🟦⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜🟦🟦🟦⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛🟨⬛🟨⬛⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛🟨⬛⬛🟨⬛&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟫⬛⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨⬛⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟫⬛⬛⬛⬛🟫🟫⬛🟨⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟫🟫🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬛🟨⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟫🟨⬛⬜⬜⬛🟫⬛🟫⬛⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟫🟫🟫🟫🟫🟫⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬛🟫⬛🟫⬛⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟫⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬛🟫🟫⬛⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨⬛⬜⬜⬛🟫⬛⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛🟨⬛⬜⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟨⬛⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨🟨⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟫⬛🟫🟫⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛🟫🟫🟫⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛🟫⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟫🟫⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨🟫⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛🟨⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;br /&gt;
⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬛⬛⬛⬛⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜⬜&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7</name></author>	</entry>

	<entry>
		<id>//en.wikifur.com/wiki/Category:Multiplayer_worlds</id>
		<title>Category:Multiplayer worlds</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikifur.com/wiki/Category:Multiplayer_worlds"/>
				<updated>2023-09-21T04:37:00Z</updated>
		
		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: your are a weenie&lt;/p&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the criminal act. For tortious aspects of assault, see Assault (tort). For other uses, see Assault (disambiguation).&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;Assailants&amp;quot; redirects here. For the EP, see Assailants (EP). For the film, see Assailant (film).&lt;br /&gt;
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1856 lithograph of the caning of Charles Sumner&lt;br /&gt;
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Sexual offenses&lt;br /&gt;
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An assault is the illegal act of causing physical harm or unwanted physical contact to another person, or, in some legal definitions, the threat or attempt to do so.[1] It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Additionally, assault is a criminal act in which a person intentionally causes fear of physical harm or offensive contact to another person.[2][3] Assault can be committed with or without a weapon and can range from physical violence to threats of violence.[4][5] Assault is frequently referred to as an attempt to commit battery, which is the deliberate use of physical force against another person. The deliberate inflicting of fear, apprehension, or terror is another definition of assault that can be found in several legal systems. Depending on the severity of the offense, assault may result in a fine, imprisonment, or even death.[6][7]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Traditionally, common law legal systems have separate definitions for assault and battery. When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery.[8][9] Some jurisdictions combined the two offenses into a single crime called &amp;quot;assault and battery&amp;quot;, which then became widely referred to as &amp;quot;assault&amp;quot;.[10][11] The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of civil law and Scots law have never distinguished assault from battery.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity.[12] In the United States, an assault can be charged as either a misdemeanor or a felony. In England and Wales and Australia, it can be charged as either common assault, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) or grievous bodily harm (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault. Separate charges typically exist for sexual assaults, affray and assaulting a police officer. Assault may overlap with an attempted crime; for example, an assault may be charged as attempted murder if it was done with intent to kill.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Related definitions&lt;br /&gt;
Battery&lt;br /&gt;
Battery is a criminal offense that involves the use of physical force against another person without their consent.[13][14][15] It is a type of assault and is considered a serious crime. Battery can include a wide range of actions, from slapping someone to causing serious harm or even death.[16][17] Depending on the severity of the offense, it can carry a wide range of punishments, including jail time, fines, and probation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act,[18] done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact.[19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault is a violent crime that involves violence or the threat of violence.[20][21] It is generally described as an intentional act that causes another person to fear imminent physical harm or injury. This can include the use of a weapon, or the threat of using a weapon. It is usually considered a felony offense and can carry severe penalties. Aggravated assault is often considered a very serious crime and can lead to long-term prison sentences.[22][23][24]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon.[25] A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon[26]&lt;br /&gt;
have sexual relations with a person who is under the age of consent&lt;br /&gt;
cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a motor vehicle during road rage; often referred to as either vehicular assault or aggravated assault with a motor vehicle.&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants.[27][28][29][30]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Defenses&lt;br /&gt;
Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Consent&lt;br /&gt;
Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault.[31] This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment (R v Wilson [1996] Crim LR 573), or horseplay (R v Jones [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Arrest and other official acts&lt;br /&gt;
Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Punishment&lt;br /&gt;
In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, England, Northern Ireland, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes &amp;quot;reasonable&amp;quot; varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In English law, s. 58 Children Act 2004 limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault.[33] This defence was abolished in Wales in 2022.[34]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of corporal punishment for children in school.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Prevention of crime&lt;br /&gt;
This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Defense of property&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a lawful excuse to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regional details&lt;br /&gt;
The following are the countries with the most cases of assault according to the United Nations in 2018.[35]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Country	Count	Rate&lt;br /&gt;
 United States	807,400	246.84&lt;br /&gt;
 Brazil	574,614	274.32&lt;br /&gt;
 United Kingdom	547,060	925.40&lt;br /&gt;
 Colombia	171,881	346.11&lt;br /&gt;
 Germany	136,727	164.48&lt;br /&gt;
Australia&lt;br /&gt;
The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the magistrates' court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.[37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900[38] defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault with further specific intent&lt;br /&gt;
Acts done to the person with intent to murder[39]&lt;br /&gt;
Wounding or grievous bodily harm[40]&lt;br /&gt;
Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest[41]&lt;br /&gt;
Assault causing certain injuries&lt;br /&gt;
Actual bodily harm[42] – the term is not defined in the Crimes Act, but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches,[43] as well as psychological injuries[44] if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent)[45]&lt;br /&gt;
Wounding[46] – where there is breaking of the skin;[43]&lt;br /&gt;
Grievous bodily harm[47] – which includes the destruction of a foetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease[48]&lt;br /&gt;
Assault causing death&lt;br /&gt;
Death[49]&lt;br /&gt;
Death when intoxicated (in regards to the offender)[50]&lt;br /&gt;
Canada&lt;br /&gt;
Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code.[51] There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to &amp;quot;tap&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;pinch&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;push&amp;quot;, or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code.[51] This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some variations on the ordinary crime of assault include:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Assault causing bodily harm: See assault causing bodily harm Section 267(b) of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code.[51]&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated sexual assault: See aggravated sexual assault.&lt;br /&gt;
An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ancient Greece&lt;br /&gt;
Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, &amp;quot;hubris&amp;quot; referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property.[52] Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, &amp;quot;outrageous treatment&amp;quot;, in general.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an &amp;quot;act of hubris&amp;quot;, or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of &amp;quot;insolence, contempt, and excessive violence&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
India&lt;br /&gt;
The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16,[53] sections 351 through 358.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Whoever makes any gesture, or any preparation intending or knowing it to be likely that such gesture or preparation will cause any person present to apprehend that he who makes that gesture or preparation is about to use criminal force to that person, is said to commit an assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
— §351 of the Indian Penal Code[54]&lt;br /&gt;
The Code further explains that &amp;quot;mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault&amp;quot;. Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nigeria&lt;br /&gt;
The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault.[55] Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with &amp;quot;intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her&amp;quot; or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for.[56]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pacific Islands&lt;br /&gt;
Marshall Islands&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code.[57] A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Republic of Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
South Africa&lt;br /&gt;
South African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. Assault is a common law crime defined as &amp;quot;unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him&amp;quot;. The law also recognises the crime of assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm, where grievous bodily harm is defined as &amp;quot;harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health&amp;quot;.[58] The common law crime of indecent assault was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of sexual assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
United Kingdom&lt;br /&gt;
Piracy with violence&lt;br /&gt;
Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs&lt;br /&gt;
This offence (relating to officers of HMRC) is created by section 32(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting an immigration officer&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 22(1) of the UK Borders Act 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting an accredited financial investigator&lt;br /&gt;
This section is created by section 453A of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 57(2) Archived 26 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.&lt;br /&gt;
Attacks on internationally protected persons&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on &amp;quot;protected persons&amp;quot; (including Heads of State).&lt;br /&gt;
Attacks on UN Staff workers&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 2 of the Night Poaching Act 1828.&lt;br /&gt;
Abolished offences:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on customs and excise officers, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of &amp;quot;assault&amp;quot; in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, DC. This offence was abolished and replaced by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005&lt;br /&gt;
This offence was created by section 51(1) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It related to officers of the Serious Organized Crime Agency and was repealed when that agency was abolished.&lt;br /&gt;
England and Wales&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Battery (crime) § England and Wales&lt;br /&gt;
English law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. Violence in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms &amp;quot;assault&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;common assault&amp;quot; often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as s 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in the magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault&lt;br /&gt;
An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing &amp;quot;actual bodily harm&amp;quot; (ABH) or, in the severest cases, &amp;quot;grievous bodily harm&amp;quot; (GBH).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
Inflicting grievous bodily harm&lt;br /&gt;
Also referred to as &amp;quot;malicious wounding&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;unlawful wounding&amp;quot;. This offence is created by section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
Causing grievous bodily harm with intent&lt;br /&gt;
Also referred to as &amp;quot;wounding with intent&amp;quot;. This offence is created by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault with intent to rob&lt;br /&gt;
The penalty for assault with intent to rob, a common law offence, is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968.&lt;br /&gt;
Racially or religiously aggravated common assault&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, defined in terms of the common law offence.&lt;br /&gt;
Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, defined in terms of the common law offence.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault with intent to resist arrest&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty&lt;br /&gt;
Section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 provides that it is an offence for a person to assault a constable acting in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. It is a summary offence with the same maximum penalty as common assault.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a traffic officer&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section/10 section 10(1) of the Traffic Management Act 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section/46 section 46(1) of the Police Reform Act 2002. Those sections relate respectively to persons given police powers by a chief police officer, detention contractors retained by police, accredited contractors under a community safety accreditation scheme, and weights and measures inspectors.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on a prison custody officer&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c.53).&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on a secure training centre custody officer&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c.33).&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on officer saving wreck&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
Assaulting an officer of the court&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the County Courts Act 1984.&lt;br /&gt;
Cruelty to persons under sixteen&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is created by section 1(1) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 and applies to a person who has responsibility for the child. In England (but not Wales since 2022), common law provides a defence of &amp;quot;reasonable punishment&amp;quot; to battery (i.e. assaults involving touching); the Children Act 2004 limits the defence to exclude, among other offences, cruelty under the 1933 Act, but not battery, which implies that smacking is not always to be considered cruelty.&lt;br /&gt;
Sexual assault&lt;br /&gt;
The offence of sexual assault is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault by penetration&lt;br /&gt;
This offence is defined by section 2 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. Whereas rape consists only of penetration with the perpetrator's penis, assault by penetration can be committed with anything, though unlike rape it excludes penetration of the mouth. It carries the same maximum sentence of life imprisonment.&lt;br /&gt;
Assault on an emergency worker&lt;br /&gt;
The Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018 makes common assault an either way offence (section 1) when committed against an emergency worker (defined in section 3), with a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment if tried on indictment. The Act did not repeal any enactments, so the existing offence of assault on a constable is still available, but that offence cannot be tried on indictment and is therefore limited to six months.&lt;br /&gt;
Scotland&lt;br /&gt;
In Scots law, assault is defined as an &amp;quot;attack upon the person of another&amp;quot;.[60] There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a physical attack on another's person, as demonstrated in Atkinson v. HM Advocate[61] wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter wearing a ski mask. The court said:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[A]n assault may be constituted by threatening gestures sufficient to produce alarm&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
— Atkinson v. HM Advocate (1987)&lt;br /&gt;
Scots law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or Hamesucken (to assault a person in their own home). The mens rea for assault is simply &amp;quot;evil intent&amp;quot;,[62] although this has been held to mean no more than that assault &amp;quot;cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently&amp;quot; as upheld in Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992 where it was found that a &amp;quot;hold-up&amp;quot; in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under Section 90, Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (previously Section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Northern Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 creates the offences of:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42;&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43&lt;br /&gt;
Common assault: under section 47&lt;br /&gt;
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47&lt;br /&gt;
The Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 creates the offences of:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by s.38 of the OAPA 1861.&lt;br /&gt;
That Act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c.32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Felony Sentences in State Courts, study by the United States Department of Justice&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States,[where?] assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a battery. However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Four elements were required at common law:[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The apparent, present ability to carry out;&lt;br /&gt;
An unlawful attempt;&lt;br /&gt;
To commit a violent injury;&lt;br /&gt;
Upon another.&lt;br /&gt;
As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats a fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes.[64][65]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Lack of intent: A defendant could argue that since they were drunk, they could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail, however, since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.&lt;br /&gt;
Mutual consent: A defendant could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. For example, boxers who are fighting in an organized boxing match and do not significantly deviate from the rules of the sport cannot be charged with assault.&lt;br /&gt;
State laws&lt;br /&gt;
Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment, etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Simple assault involves an intentional act that causes another person to be in reasonable fear of an imminent battery. Simple assault may also involve an attempt to cause harm to another person, where that attempt does not succeed. Simple assault is typically classified as a misdemeanor offense, unless the victim is a member of a protected class, such as being a law enforcement officer.[66] Even as a misdemeanor, an assault conviction may still result in incarceration and in a criminal record.&lt;br /&gt;
Aggravated assault involves more serious actions, such as an assault that is committed with the intent to cause a serious bodily injury, or an assault that is committed with a deadly weapon such as a firearm. Aggravated assault is typically classified as a felony offense.&lt;br /&gt;
Modern American statutes may define assault as including:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another&lt;br /&gt;
negligently causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon (assault with a deadly weapon).[67]&lt;br /&gt;
causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a motor vehicle (vehicular assault).[68]&lt;br /&gt;
threatening another in a menacing manner.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative[70]&lt;br /&gt;
causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent[71]&lt;br /&gt;
purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another[72]&lt;br /&gt;
any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act.[73]&lt;br /&gt;
In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a petty misdemeanor.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
States vary on whether it is possible to commit an &amp;quot;attempted assault&amp;quot; since it can be considered a double inchoate offense.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kansas&lt;br /&gt;
In Kansas the law on assault states:[74]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Assault is intentionally placing another person in reasonable apprehension of immediate bodily harm.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
New York&lt;br /&gt;
In New York State, assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120)[75] requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called &amp;quot;menacing&amp;quot;. A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a Class A misdemeanor; punishable with up to one year incarceration, probation for an extended time, and a permanent criminal record) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a Class E felony) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense.[76][77][78][79] New York also has specific laws against hazing, when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
North Dakota&lt;br /&gt;
North Dakota law states:[80]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Simple assault.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A person is guilty of an offense if that person:&lt;br /&gt;
Willfully causes bodily injury to another human being; or&lt;br /&gt;
Negligently causes bodily injury to another human being by means of a firearm, destructive device, or other weapon, the use of which against a human being is likely to cause death or serious bodily injury.&lt;br /&gt;
Pennsylvania&lt;br /&gt;
In Pennsylvania, an offender can be charged with simple assault if they:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
injure someone else recklessly, knowingly, or purposefully&lt;br /&gt;
accidentally injure someone with a firearm or weapon&lt;br /&gt;
cause a needle-stick to an officer or correctional employee during a search or arrest&lt;br /&gt;
threaten or intimidate someone causing fear of imminent serious bodily injury&lt;br /&gt;
A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor.[81]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An offender can be charged with aggravated assault if the offender:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
demonstrates extreme indifference to the victim's life&lt;br /&gt;
injures or threatens to injure a law enforcement officer, correctional officer, firefighter, police officer, or teacher on duty, or for incapacitating any of these individuals&lt;br /&gt;
A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison.[81]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Tennessee&lt;br /&gt;
In Tennessee assault is defined as follows:[82]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
39-13-101. Assault.&lt;br /&gt;
(a) A person commits assault who:&lt;br /&gt;
(1) Intentionally, knowingly or recklessly causes bodily injury to another;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Intentionally or knowingly causes another to reasonably fear imminent bodily injury; or&lt;br /&gt;
(3) Intentionally or knowingly causes physical contact with another and a reasonable person would regard the contact as extremely offensive or provocative.&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
Domestic violence&lt;br /&gt;
Gay bashing&lt;br /&gt;
Hate crime&lt;br /&gt;
Mayhem&lt;br /&gt;
Offences Against the Person Act 1861&lt;br /&gt;
Citations&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Assault and Battery Overview&amp;quot;. criminal.findlaw.com. criminal.findlaw. Retrieved 18 September 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Beyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent&amp;quot;. heinonline.org. Retrieved 18 March 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfield, Leslie Yalof (2009). &amp;quot;The Case for a Criminal Law Theory of Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress&amp;quot;. Criminal Law Brief. 5: 33.&lt;br /&gt;
 FELSON, RICHARD B.; STEADMAN, HENRY J. (February 1983). &amp;quot;Situational Factors in Disputes Leading to Criminal Violence&amp;quot;. Criminology. 21 (1): 59–74. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x. ISSN 0011-1384.&lt;br /&gt;
 Meloy, J. Reid; Hoffmann, Jens (2021). International Handbook of Threat Assessment. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-094016-4.&lt;br /&gt;
 Reitz, Kevin R. (February 1993). &amp;quot;Sentencing Facts: Travesties of Real-Offense Sentencing&amp;quot;. Stanford Law Review. 45 (3): 523–573. doi:10.2307/1229007. ISSN 0038-9765. JSTOR 1229007.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tyler, Tom R.; Weber, Renee (1982). &amp;quot;Support for the Death Penalty; Instrumental Response to Crime, or Symbolic Attitude?&amp;quot;. Law &amp;amp; Society Review. 17 (1): 21–45. doi:10.2307/3053531. ISSN 0023-9216. JSTOR 3053531.&lt;br /&gt;
 Spohn, Cassia; Beichner, Dawn; Davis-Frenzel, Erika (May 2001). &amp;quot;Prosecutorial Justifications for Sexual Assault Case Rejection: Guarding the &amp;quot;Gateway to Justice&amp;quot;&amp;quot;. Social Problems. 48 (2): 206–235. doi:10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206. ISSN 0037-7791.&lt;br /&gt;
 Romanenko, Ya.O.; Marin, M.A.; Riabko, A.K.; Kartseva, A.S.; Silkina, M.V.; Zeninskaya, N.A.; Shemyakin, I.G.; Dyatlov, I.A.; Firstova, V.V. (2021). &amp;quot;Toxin neutralizing activity of monoclonal antibodies against Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin&amp;quot;. Immunologiya. 42 (3): 232–242. doi:10.33029/0206-4952-2021-42-3-232-242. ISSN 0206-4952. S2CID 238044692.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;14. Criminal Law (Ireland)&amp;quot;. Annotated Legal Documents on Islam in Europe Online. doi:10.1163/2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14. Retrieved 23 March 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Walby, Sylvia; Allen, Jonathan (2004). &amp;quot;Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault And Stalking: Findings from The British Crime Survey&amp;quot;. PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e649462007-001. Retrieved 23 March 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Britt, Chester L.; Buzawa, Eve S.; Buzawa, Carl G. (July 1991). &amp;quot;Domestic Violence: The Criminal Justice Response&amp;quot;. Contemporary Sociology. 20 (4): 597. doi:10.2307/2071841. ISSN 0094-3061. JSTOR 2071841.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dripps, Donald A. (November 1992). &amp;quot;Beyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent&amp;quot;. Columbia Law Review. 92 (7): 1780–1809. doi:10.2307/1123045. ISSN 0010-1958. JSTOR 1123045.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Criminal Violence In Sport&amp;quot;, Modern Sports Law, Bloomsbury, 2010, doi:10.5040/9781509955640.ch-005, ISBN 978-1-8411-3685-1, retrieved 23 March 2023&lt;br /&gt;
 Dripps, Donald A. mname (2018). &amp;quot;Why Rape Should Be a Federal Crime&amp;quot;. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3095741. ISSN 1556-5068.&lt;br /&gt;
 O'Neal, Edgar C. (1994). &amp;lt;461::aid-ab2480200606&amp;gt;3.0.co;2-o &amp;quot;Human aggression, second edition, edited by Robert A. Baron and Deborah R. Richardson. New York, Plenum, 1994, xx + 419 pp&amp;quot;. Aggressive Behavior. 20 (6): 461–463. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:6&amp;lt;461::aid-ab2480200606&amp;gt;3.0.co;2-o. ISSN 0096-140X.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bidwell, Lee D. Millar; Barnett, Ola W.; Miller-Perrin, Cindy L.; Perrin, Robin (April 1997). &amp;quot;Family Violence across the Lifespan: An Introduction&amp;quot;. Teaching Sociology. 25 (2): 198. doi:10.2307/1318672. ISSN 0092-055X. JSTOR 1318672.&lt;br /&gt;
 An act is volitional if it is purposeful and deliberate as opposed to reflexive or involuntary (see Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (London, Sweet &amp;amp; Maxwell 2012) at p 901). For example. a person who has restless leg syndrome kicks his wife while asleep. The contact, although, harmful, would not constitute battery because the act was not willful.&lt;br /&gt;
 A criminal battery may also be committed if the harmful or offensive contact is due to the criminal negligence of the defendant.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tjaden, Patricia; Thoennes, Nancy (2000). &amp;quot;Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence&amp;quot;. PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e300342003-001. hdl:2027/mdp.39015042645401. Retrieved 23 March 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Gruszczyńska, Beata Z. (31 October 2013), &amp;quot;Women Victimization Risk of Violence in Poland&amp;quot;, Organized Crime, Corruption and Crime Prevention, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 69–75, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01839-3_9, ISBN 978-3-319-01838-6, retrieved 23 March 2023&lt;br /&gt;
 Gurr, Ted Robert (January 1981). &amp;quot;Historical Trends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence&amp;quot;. Crime and Justice. 3: 295–353. doi:10.1086/449082. ISSN 0192-3234. S2CID 144948441.&lt;br /&gt;
 Markowitz, Sara (March 2005). &amp;quot;Alcohol, Drugs and Violent Crime&amp;quot;. International Review of Law and Economics. 25 (1): 20–44. doi:10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.003. ISSN 0144-8188.&lt;br /&gt;
 DeLisi, Matt (2003). &amp;quot;Criminal careers behind bars&amp;quot;. Behavioral Sciences &amp;amp; the Law. 21 (5): 653–669. doi:10.1002/bsl.531. ISSN 0735-3936. PMID 14502694.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Crime in the United States 2010: Aggravated Assault&amp;quot;. Federal Bureau of Investigation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Baker, Dennis; William, Glanville. &amp;quot;9&amp;quot;. Textbook of Criminal Law. London, Sweet &amp;amp; Maxwell.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bailey, Frankie Y. (September 1999). &amp;quot;Book Review: Street-Level Leadership: Discretion and Legitimacy in Front-Line Public Service&amp;quot;. Criminal Justice Review. 24 (2): 218–220. doi:10.1177/073401689902400229. ISSN 0734-0168. S2CID 144571165.&lt;br /&gt;
 Sherman, Lawrence W.; Rogan, Dennis P. (December 1995). &amp;quot;Effects of gun seizures on gun violence: &amp;quot;Hot spots&amp;quot; patrol in Kansas city&amp;quot;. Justice Quarterly. 12 (4): 673–693. doi:10.1080/07418829500096241. ISSN 0741-8825.&lt;br /&gt;
 Sherman, Lawrence W.; Berk, Richard A. (April 1984). &amp;quot;The Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault&amp;quot;. American Sociological Review. 49 (2): 261–272. doi:10.2307/2095575. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2095575. PMID 6742629.&lt;br /&gt;
 Chambliss, William J. (15 May 2018). Power, Politics, and Crime. doi:10.4324/9780429498084. ISBN 9780429498084.&lt;br /&gt;
 (RvG ref 6. 1980): see &amp;quot;R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75&amp;quot;. LawTeacher. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 17 September 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Smart v. H. M. Advocate, [1975] ScotHC HCJ_1, 1975 SLT 65, 1975 JC 30&amp;quot;. bailii.org. Retrieved 23 July 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Children Act 2004: Section 58&amp;quot;, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives, 2004 c. 31 (s. 58)&lt;br /&gt;
 Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament. Children (Abolition of Defence of Reasonable Punishment) (Wales) Act 2020 as amended (see also enacted form), from legislation.gov.uk. Section 1. This section came into force two years after the Act received royal assent (see section 5(1)).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Serious assault | dataUNODC&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 24 May 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Darby v DPP [2004] NSWCA 431, (2004) 61 NSWLR 558, Court of Appeal (NSW, Australia).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Assault Laws in Australia: Definitions and Defences&amp;quot;. findlaw.com.au. Retrieved 12 March 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW).&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 27&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 33&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 33B&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 59&lt;br /&gt;
 R v McIntyre [2009] NSWCCA 305, Court of Criminal Appeal (NSW, Australia).&lt;br /&gt;
 Li v R [2005] NSWCCA 442, Court of Criminal Appeal (NSW, Australia).&lt;br /&gt;
 R v Donovan [1934] 2 KB 498; (1934) 5 New Zealand Police Law Reports 247.&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 35(4).&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 35(2).&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 4.&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 25a&lt;br /&gt;
 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 25b&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;CanLII – Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46&amp;quot;. Canlii. Archived from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacDowell (1976) p. 25.&lt;br /&gt;
 Indian Penal Code Chapter XVI&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Vakil No1.com – &amp;quot;Indian Penal Code&amp;quot;&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Criminal Code Act-PartV&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 24 November 2002. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Criminal Code Act-PartV&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 24 November 2002. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Criminal Code [31 MIRC Ch 1] Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Milton, John (1996). South African Criminal Law and Procedure: Common-law crimes (3rd ed.). Cape Town: Juta &amp;amp; Co. pp. 405–437. ISBN 978-0-7021-3773-0.&lt;br /&gt;
 Section 453A was inserted by section 81(2) of the Serious Crime Act 2007 and amended by paragraph 94 of Schedule 7 to the Policing and Crime Act 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacDonald, Criminal Law (5th edn, 1948) p.155&lt;br /&gt;
 1987 SCCR 534&lt;br /&gt;
 MacDonald, op. cit, p.155; Smart v. HM Advocate 1975 JC 30&lt;br /&gt;
 Atoki, Morayo (1995). &amp;quot;Assault and S 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861&amp;quot;. The Journal of Criminal Law. 59 (3): 301. doi:10.1177/002201839505900307. S2CID 148828619.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Legislative Analysis of The Unborn Victims Of Violence Act&amp;quot;. ACLU. American Civil Liberties Union. 18 February 2000. Retrieved 5 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;State Laws on Fetal Homicide and Penalty-enhancement for Crimes Against Pregnant Women&amp;quot;. NCSL. National Conference of State Legislatures. 1 May 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 See, e.g., &amp;quot;MCL 750.81d, Assaulting, battering, resisting, obstructing, opposing person performing duty; felony; penalty; other violations; consecutive terms; definitions&amp;quot;. Michigan Legislature. State of Michigan. Retrieved 17 January 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;South Dakota Legislature&amp;quot;. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;RCW 46.61.522: Vehicular assault — Penalty&amp;quot;. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;§ 28-310 — Assault in the third degree; penalty. :: Chapter 28 — Crimes and Punishments: 2006 Nebraska Revised Statutes :: Nebraska Revised Statutes: US Codes and Statutes :: US Law :: Justia&amp;quot;. Justia Law. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Section 565-070 Until December 31, 2016—Assault in the&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Sec. 53a-60. Assault in the second degree: Class D felony. :: Chapter 952 — Penal Code: Offenses (contains Secs. 53a-24 to 53a-323) :: Title 53a — Penal Code (contains Chapters 950 to 952) :: 2005 Connecticut Code :: Connecticut Code: US Codes and Statutes: US Law: Justia&amp;quot;. Justia Law. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MONT CODE ANN § 45-5-201 : Montana Code – Section 45-5-201: Assault&amp;quot;. Findlaw. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Iowa Code 708&amp;quot;. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;KS Statutes: Ch 21 Article 34: Crimes Against Persons&amp;quot;. 14 November 2007. Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Article 120 – NY Penal Law – Assault Menacing Stalking – Law&amp;quot;. New York State Senate. Retrieved 15 March 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;New York Consolidated Laws, Penal Law – PEN § 240.30 – FindLaw&amp;quot;. findlaw.com. Retrieved 23 July 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;New York Harassment Laws – FindLaw&amp;quot;. findlaw.com. Retrieved 23 July 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Opinion – When Is a Threat a Criminal Act?&amp;quot;. The New York Times. 5 December 2014. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Second Degree Aggravated Harassment&amp;quot;. The Law Office of Crotty &amp;amp; Saland. Retrieved 23 July 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;North Dakota Century Code t12.1c17&amp;quot; (PDF).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 27. - Title 18 - CRIMES AND OFFENSES&amp;quot;. www.legis.state.pa.us. Retrieved 12 April 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;LexisNexis® Custom Solution: Tennessee Code Research Tool&amp;quot;. Retrieved 10 May 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
General and cited references&lt;br /&gt;
Baker, Dennis; William, Glanville. &amp;quot;Chapter 9&amp;quot;. Textbook of Criminal Law. London, Sweet &amp;amp; Maxwell.[full citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Look up assault or beat up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.&lt;br /&gt;
A guide to the non fatal offences against the person&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Types of crime&lt;br /&gt;
Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata	&lt;br /&gt;
Germany&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: AssaultCrimes&lt;br /&gt;
This page was last edited on 18 September 2023, at 01:05 (UTC).&lt;br /&gt;
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.&lt;br /&gt;
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		<title>Category:Conventions</title>
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				<updated>2023-09-21T04:35:08Z</updated>
		
		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: ,&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
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Article&lt;br /&gt;
Talk&lt;br /&gt;
Read&lt;br /&gt;
View source&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
Higher categories:&lt;br /&gt;
Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
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Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
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 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
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The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
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 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikiquote has quotations related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
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Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
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Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
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History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
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European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
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Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
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The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
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The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
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The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
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The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
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Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
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Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
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Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
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Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
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A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
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Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
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Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
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Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
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In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
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Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
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According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
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Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
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Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
Higher categories:&lt;br /&gt;
Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
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Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
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Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
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History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
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European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
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Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
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The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
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The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
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The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
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The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
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Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
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Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
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Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
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Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
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A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
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Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
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Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
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Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
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In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
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Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
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According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
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Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
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Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
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reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
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the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
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protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
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UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
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Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
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Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
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Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
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The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
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The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
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The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
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The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
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The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
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Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
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Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
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Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
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Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
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A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
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Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
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Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
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Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
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In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
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Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
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According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
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Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
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Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
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the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
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UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
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Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
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Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
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 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law by country&lt;br /&gt;
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Intellectual property activism&lt;br /&gt;
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
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Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
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History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
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The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
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The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
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Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
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Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
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Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikiquote has quotations related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has original text related to this article:&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
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AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
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Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
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 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
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The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
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 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikiquote has quotations related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
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Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
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Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
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History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
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European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
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Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
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The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
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The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
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The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
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The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
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Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
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Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
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Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
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Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
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A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
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Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
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Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
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In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
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Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
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In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
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Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
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According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
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Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
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Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
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AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
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 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
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 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
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 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
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 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
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Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
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 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
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 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has original text related to this article:&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
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Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law by country&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property activism&lt;br /&gt;
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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Article&lt;br /&gt;
Talk&lt;br /&gt;
Read&lt;br /&gt;
View source&lt;br /&gt;
View history&lt;br /&gt;
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Tools&lt;br /&gt;
Page semi-protected&lt;br /&gt;
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
Higher categories:&lt;br /&gt;
Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikiquote has quotations related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has original text related to this article:&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
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AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
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Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
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 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assets&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assets&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
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		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: A raider (me) has entered the battle field&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;div&gt;Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
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Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
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 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
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 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
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Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
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Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
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Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
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In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
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National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
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International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
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 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). &amp;quot;Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law&amp;quot;. SSRN. SSRN 1839527. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
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 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
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Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
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The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
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A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
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 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
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 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
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 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
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Wikisource has original text related to this article:&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
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Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law by country&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property activism&lt;br /&gt;
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assetsCopyright&lt;br /&gt;
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Article&lt;br /&gt;
Talk&lt;br /&gt;
Read&lt;br /&gt;
View source&lt;br /&gt;
View history&lt;br /&gt;
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Tools&lt;br /&gt;
Page semi-protected&lt;br /&gt;
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia&lt;br /&gt;
Not to be confused with Copywriting.&lt;br /&gt;
This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see Copyright symbol. For the band, see Copyright (band).&lt;br /&gt;
For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rightsCopyleftCopyrightDatabase rightFarmers' rightsGeographical indicationIndigenous intellectual propertyIndustrial design rightIntegrated circuit layout design protectionMoral rightsPatentPeasants' rightsPlant breeders' rightsPlant genetic resourcesRelated rightsSupplementary protection certificateTrade dressTrade secretTrademarkUtility model&lt;br /&gt;
Related topics&lt;br /&gt;
AbandonwareBrand protectionCopyright abolitionCopyright trollCriticism of copyrightBioprospectingIdea–expression distinctionLimitations and exceptions to copyright Fair dealingFair useParaphrasingRight to quoteOrphan workPatent trollPirate PartyPublic domainOutline of intellectual property Outline of patents&lt;br /&gt;
Higher categories:&lt;br /&gt;
Property and Property law&lt;br /&gt;
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A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.[1][2][3][4][5] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[6][7][8] A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some jurisdictions require &amp;quot;fixing&amp;quot; copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.[9][10][11][12][13][better source needed] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.[14]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered &amp;quot;territorial rights&amp;quot;. This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works &amp;quot;cross&amp;quot; national borders or national rights are inconsistent.[15]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction. Some countries require certain copyright formalities[5] to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
History&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: History of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.&lt;br /&gt;
Background&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe[16] in the 15th and 16th centuries.[17] The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.[18]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.[16] Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.[18] In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.[18] After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.[18][19]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conception&lt;br /&gt;
The concept of copyright first developed in England. In reaction to the printing of &amp;quot;scandalous books and pamphlets&amp;quot;, the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662,[16] which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.[20]&lt;br /&gt;
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The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors’ published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors’ unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.[21] This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to &amp;quot;life of the author plus 50 years&amp;quot;. These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.[21]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.[22]&lt;br /&gt;
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Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
National copyrights&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Statute of Anne and History of copyright law of the United States&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.&lt;br /&gt;
Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[23] The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, &amp;quot;Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:&amp;quot;.[24] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: &amp;quot;To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&amp;quot; That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law was enacted rather late in German states, and the historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of copyright laws in the early 19th century encouraged publishing, was profitable for authors, led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.[25] However, empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of copyright in Napoleonic Italy shows that &amp;quot;basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability&amp;quot;.[26]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
International copyright treaties&lt;br /&gt;
See also: International copyright agreements and List of parties to international copyright agreements&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not &amp;quot;register&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;apply for&amp;quot; a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.[27] As soon as a work is &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the Convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the Convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.[28]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as all rights reserved), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.[29][30][31] The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.[32]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual Property Provisions relating to copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union or World Trade Organization require their member states to comply with them.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Obtaining protection&lt;br /&gt;
Ownership&lt;br /&gt;
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a &amp;quot;work for hire&amp;quot;.[33][34] For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a &amp;quot;Work for Hire&amp;quot;. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author.[35] But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Eligible works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;. Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs. Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.[36][37]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.[38] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.[38] Note additionally that Mickey Mouse is not copyrighted because characters cannot be copyrighted; rather, Steamboat Willie is copyrighted and Mickey Mouse, as a character in that copyrighted work, is afforded protection.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Originality&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Threshold of originality&lt;br /&gt;
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some &amp;quot;skill, labour, and judgment&amp;quot; that has gone into it.[39] In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Registration&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright registration&lt;br /&gt;
In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.[27] However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as prima facie evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.[40] (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.[41] The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.[42][43]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fixing&lt;br /&gt;
The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be &amp;quot;fixed&amp;quot; to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: &amp;quot;It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.&amp;quot; Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be &amp;quot;fixed in a tangible medium of expression&amp;quot; to obtain copyright protection.[44] US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be &amp;quot;perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration&amp;quot;. Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be &amp;quot;expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance&amp;quot;.[44]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note this provision of US law: c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.[45]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol used in copyright notice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper&lt;br /&gt;
Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter C inside a circle), the abbreviation &amp;quot;Copr.&amp;quot;, or the word &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;, followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.[46][47] Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter P inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter P indicating a &amp;quot;phonorecord&amp;quot;. In addition, the phrase All rights reserved which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.[48]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.[49] However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of &amp;quot;innocent infringement&amp;quot; being successful.[50]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Enforcement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (See Legal aspects of file sharing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;...by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.&amp;quot;[51]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed &amp;quot;unauthorized edition&amp;quot;, not copyright infringement.[52]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.[53] Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.[54] In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.[55]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy &amp;quot;continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.&amp;quot;[56] A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting &amp;quot;estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.&amp;quot;[57] An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that &amp;quot;online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.&amp;quot; This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.[58]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Rights granted&lt;br /&gt;
According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.[59]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Economic rights&lt;br /&gt;
With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.[59] Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;&lt;br /&gt;
distribution of copies of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
public performance of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;&lt;br /&gt;
translation of the work into other languages; and&lt;br /&gt;
adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Moral rights&lt;br /&gt;
Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.[60] The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and&lt;br /&gt;
the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).&lt;br /&gt;
These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors’ economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.[59] Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.[61]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
protection of the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)&lt;br /&gt;
to import or export the work;&lt;br /&gt;
to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)&lt;br /&gt;
to perform or display the work publicly;&lt;br /&gt;
to sell or cede these rights to others;&lt;br /&gt;
to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.[36]&lt;br /&gt;
The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase &amp;quot;exclusive right&amp;quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a &amp;quot;negative right&amp;quot;, as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law. The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.[62]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While ‘copying’ someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, ‘mutilating’ it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to ‘derogatory treatment’, that is the right of integrity.[60]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.[63]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Duration&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Copyright term and List of countries' copyright length&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States[64] and the United Kingdom[65]), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.[66]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.[67] In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.[68] Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act. This legislation was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired, and has been the subject of substantial criticism on this point.[69]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Limitations and exceptions&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Limitations and exceptions to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).[70] However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Idea–expression divide&lt;br /&gt;
The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of Baker v. Selden, has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: First-sale doctrine and Exhaustion of rights&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD. In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights. It is important to note that the first-sale doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved. It does not permit making or distributing additional copies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc.,[71] in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fair use and fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Main articles: Fair use and Fair dealing&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the purpose and character of one's use;&lt;br /&gt;
the nature of the copyrighted work;&lt;br /&gt;
what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;&lt;br /&gt;
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.[72]&lt;br /&gt;
In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. legal advice). Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to &amp;quot;format shift&amp;quot; that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to &amp;quot;time shift&amp;quot; a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.[36][73][74] An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;&lt;br /&gt;
reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;&lt;br /&gt;
archival reproductions of broadcasts;&lt;br /&gt;
uses for the benefit of people with a disability;&lt;br /&gt;
for demonstration or repair of equipment;&lt;br /&gt;
for non-commercial research or private study;&lt;br /&gt;
when used in parody.&lt;br /&gt;
Accessible copies&lt;br /&gt;
It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.[75][76]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Religious Service Exemption&lt;br /&gt;
In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely &amp;quot;performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly&amp;quot; shall not constitute infringement of copyright.[77]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Useful articles&lt;br /&gt;
In Canada, items deemed useful articles such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the Copyright Act if reproduced more than 50 times.[78] Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.[79]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Transfer, assignment and licensing&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Collective rights management, Extended collective licensing, Compulsory license, and Copyright transfer agreement&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Generic DVD: All rights reserved&lt;br /&gt;
A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.[80] For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,[81] for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright may also be licensed.[80] Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.[82] Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Free licenses&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Free license&lt;br /&gt;
See also: Open-source license&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright licenses known as open or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. Free in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive. Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization[83] which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.[83]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.[84] As of 2009 approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.[84]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over copynorms. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.[85][86][87] Discussions include Free Culture, a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig. Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system. Good Copy Bad Copy (documentary) and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright. Some suggest an alternative compensation system. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Main article: Public domain&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
See also&lt;br /&gt;
icon	Law portal&lt;br /&gt;
Adelphi Charter&lt;br /&gt;
Artificial scarcity&lt;br /&gt;
Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries&lt;br /&gt;
Conflict of laws&lt;br /&gt;
Copyfraud&lt;br /&gt;
Copyleft&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright abolition&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Alliance&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright alternatives&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright for Creativity&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright in architecture in the United States&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Criticism of intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright infringement&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)&lt;br /&gt;
Digital rights management&lt;br /&gt;
Digital watermarking&lt;br /&gt;
Entertainment law&lt;br /&gt;
Freedom of panorama&lt;br /&gt;
Information literacies&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property protection of typefaces&lt;br /&gt;
List of Copyright Acts&lt;br /&gt;
List of copyright case law&lt;br /&gt;
Literary property&lt;br /&gt;
Model release&lt;br /&gt;
Paracopyright&lt;br /&gt;
Philosophy of copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Photography and the law&lt;br /&gt;
Pirate Party&lt;br /&gt;
Printing patent, a precursor to copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Private copying levy&lt;br /&gt;
Production music&lt;br /&gt;
Rent-seeking&lt;br /&gt;
Reproduction fees&lt;br /&gt;
Samizdat&lt;br /&gt;
Software copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Threshold pledge system&lt;br /&gt;
World Book and Copyright Day&lt;br /&gt;
References&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of copyright&amp;quot;. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Definition of Copyright&amp;quot;. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Intellectual property&amp;quot;, Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Understanding Copyright and Related Rights&amp;quot; (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Retrieved 6 December 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Basics FAQ&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Daniel A. Tysver. &amp;quot;Works Unprotected by Copyright Law&amp;quot;. Bitlaw.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lee A. Hollaar. &amp;quot;Legal Protection of Digital Information&amp;quot;. p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright, University of California, 2014, retrieved 15 December 2014&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Journal Conventions&amp;quot;. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment &amp;amp; Technology Law. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects. Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media. ISBN 9789067047937 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). Publishing Forms and Contracts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190451264 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
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 &amp;quot;Copyright Basics&amp;quot; (PDF). www.copyright.gov. U.S. Copyright Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Law Survey&amp;quot;. Mincov Law Corporation.&lt;br /&gt;
 Copyright in Historical Perspective, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press&lt;br /&gt;
 Joanna Kostylo, &amp;quot;From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent&amp;quot;, in Ronan Deazley et al., Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062&lt;br /&gt;
 Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Spiegel Online.&lt;br /&gt;
 Lasar, Matthew (23 August 2010). &amp;quot;Did Weak Copyright Laws Help Germany Outpace The British Empire?&amp;quot;. Wired.&lt;br /&gt;
 Nipps, Karen (2014). &amp;quot;Cum privilegio: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662&amp;quot; (PDF). The Library Quarterly. 84 (4): 494–500. doi:10.1086/677787. S2CID 144070638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). &amp;quot;Copyright Law from an American Perspective&amp;quot;. Irish Jurist. 37: 16–22. JSTOR 44027015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press. p. 9–17. ISBN 0-8133-1385-6.&lt;br /&gt;
 Ronan, Deazley (2006). Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84542-282-0 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Statute of Anne&amp;quot;. Copyrighthistory.com. Retrieved 8 June 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). &amp;quot;No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?&amp;quot;. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 11 April 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age&amp;quot;. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w26885.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5&amp;quot;. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). &amp;quot;Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent&amp;quot;. JAIC 36 (2): 165–179.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;International Copyright Relations of the United States&amp;quot;, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.&lt;br /&gt;
 Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.&lt;br /&gt;
 165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Archived 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine as of May 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)&lt;br /&gt;
 Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid&lt;br /&gt;
 Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). &amp;quot;Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?&amp;quot;. The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 21 July 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1. Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). Understanding Copyright and Related Rights (PDF). WIPO. p. 8. doi:10.34667/tind.36289. ISBN 9789280528046. Retrieved 1 December 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 Simon, Stokes (2001). Art and copyright. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc, F.S.R. 36 (1991)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright&amp;quot; (PDF). copyright.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2015.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright in General (FAQ)&amp;quot;. U.S. Copyright Office. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Registers&amp;quot; Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Automatic right&amp;quot;, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
 See Harvard Law School, Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law. See also Tyler T. Ochoa, Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?, 20 Santa Clara High Tech. L.J. 991, 999–1002 (2003) (&amp;quot;Thus, both the text of the Act and its legislative history demonstrate that Congress intended that a derivative work does not need to be fixed in order to infringe.&amp;quot;). The legislative history of the 1976 Copyright Act says this difference was intended to address transitory works such as ballets, pantomimes, improvised performances, dumb shows, mime performances, and dancing.&lt;br /&gt;
 See US copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 94–553: Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, § 401(a) (19 October 1976)&lt;br /&gt;
 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 100–568: The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (BCIA), 102 Stat. 2853, 2857. One of the changes introduced by the BCIA was to section 401, which governs copyright notices on published copies, specifying that notices &amp;quot;may be placed on&amp;quot; such copies; prior to the BCIA, the statute read that notices &amp;quot;shall be placed on all&amp;quot; such copies. An analogous change was made in section 402, dealing with copyright notices on phonorecords.&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform:Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York City, New York, US: Picador. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2012.&lt;br /&gt;
 17 U.S.C.§ 401(d)&lt;br /&gt;
 Taylor, Astra (2014). The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age. New York, New York: Picador. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8.&lt;br /&gt;
 Owen, L. (2001). &amp;quot;Piracy&amp;quot;. Learned Publishing. 14: 67–70. doi:10.1087/09531510125100313. S2CID 221957508.&lt;br /&gt;
 Butler, S. Piracy Losses &amp;quot;Billboard&amp;quot; 199(36)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Urheberrechtsverletzungen im Internet: Der bestehende rechtliche Rahmen genügt&amp;quot;. Ejpd.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2020.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tobias Kretschmer; Christian Peukert (2014). &amp;quot;Video Killed the Radio Star? Online Music Videos and Digital Music Sales&amp;quot;. Cep Discussion Paper. Social Science Electronic Publishing. ISSN 2042-2695. SSRN 2425386.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;IP Commission Report&amp;quot; (PDF). NBR.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Impacts of Digital Piracy on the U.S. Economy&amp;quot; (PDF). GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Advertising Fuels $1.34 Billion Illegal Piracy Market, Report by Digital Citizens Alliance and White Bullet Finds&amp;quot;. Digital Citizens Alliance. Retrieved 2 September 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)&amp;quot; (PDF). 20 April 2019.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Mutilated Work&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright User. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;authors, attribution, and integrity: examining moral rights in the united states&amp;quot; (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 Tom G. Palmer, &amp;quot;Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?&amp;quot; Accessed 5 February 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
 Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In India&amp;quot;. Mondaq.&lt;br /&gt;
 17  U.S.C. § 305&lt;br /&gt;
 The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, part II, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988&lt;br /&gt;
 Nimmer, David (2003). Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2. OCLC 50606064 – via Google Books.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States.&amp;quot;, Cornell University.&lt;br /&gt;
 See Peter B. Hirtle, &amp;quot;Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015&amp;quot; online at footnote 8 Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine&lt;br /&gt;
 Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;(2012) Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. v. Kirtsaeng&amp;quot; (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2017.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;US CODE: Title 17,107. Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use&amp;quot;. .law.cornell.edu. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2009.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998&amp;quot; (PDF). Copyright Office. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Digital Millennium Copyright act&amp;quot;. American Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2022.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Chapter 1 – Circular 92 – U.S. Copyright Office&amp;quot;. www.copyright.gov.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 comes into force&amp;quot;. Royal National Institute of Blind People. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2016.&lt;br /&gt;
 General Guide to the Copyright Act of 1976, US Copyright Office, Ch.8, p.11, September 1977&lt;br /&gt;
 Monastero, Alessia. &amp;quot;More Than Just a Trend: The Copyright Protection of Fashion Designs&amp;quot;. Ontario Bar Association. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 Moran, Padraig. &amp;quot;Dupes offer cheap fashion to Canadians, but small businesses say they're paying the price&amp;quot;. CBC Radio. Retrieved 31 August 2023.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Creative Commons Website&amp;quot;. creativecommons.org. Retrieved 24 October 2011.&lt;br /&gt;
 Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship&amp;quot;. European Digital Rights (EDRi). Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
 &amp;quot;Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet&amp;quot;. The Guardian. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
Further reading&lt;br /&gt;
Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). Copyright Litigation Handbook (1st ed.). Thomson West. ISBN 0-314-96279-4.&lt;br /&gt;
Ellis, Sara R. Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), available at Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.&lt;br /&gt;
Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.&lt;br /&gt;
Lehman, Bruce: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)&lt;br /&gt;
Lindsey, Marc: Copyright Law on Campus. Washington State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7.&lt;br /&gt;
Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
McDonagh, Luke. Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright? International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN&lt;br /&gt;
Nimmer, Melville; David Nimmer (1997). Nimmer on Copyright. Matthew Bender. ISBN 0-8205-1465-9.&lt;br /&gt;
Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0-8265-1373-5.&lt;br /&gt;
Rife, by Martine Courant. Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.&lt;br /&gt;
Rosen, Ronald (2008). Music and Copyright. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2.&lt;br /&gt;
Shipley, David E. &amp;quot;Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works&amp;quot; UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.&lt;br /&gt;
Sorce Keller, Marcello. &amp;quot;Originality, Authenticity and Copyright&amp;quot;, Sonus, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.&lt;br /&gt;
Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 1-884718-19-1.&lt;br /&gt;
Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (PDF). Copy/South Research Group. ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013.&lt;br /&gt;
Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). The First Copyright Statute. Austin: University of Texas. ISBN 9780292732353.&lt;br /&gt;
Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press&lt;br /&gt;
Loewenstein, J. (2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.&lt;br /&gt;
Abbott, Madigan, Mossoff, Osenga, Rosen. &amp;quot;Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy&amp;quot; (PDF). Regulatory Transparency Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021.&lt;br /&gt;
External links&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikiquote has quotations related to Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Copyright.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article &amp;quot;Copyright&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wikisource has original text related to this article:&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law&lt;br /&gt;
Library resources about&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in your library&lt;br /&gt;
Resources in other libraries&lt;br /&gt;
Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). &amp;quot;Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page&amp;quot;. WhoIsHostingThis.com. A simplified guide.&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright at Curlie&lt;br /&gt;
WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity, U.S. Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance, The Illusion of More Podcast&lt;br /&gt;
Education&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Cortex&lt;br /&gt;
A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur&lt;br /&gt;
MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)&lt;br /&gt;
USA&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government&lt;br /&gt;
Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.) United States Copyright Office&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright from UCB Libraries GovPubs&lt;br /&gt;
Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress&lt;br /&gt;
UK&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office&lt;br /&gt;
Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Copyright law by country&lt;br /&gt;
vte&lt;br /&gt;
Intellectual property activism&lt;br /&gt;
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Categories: Copyright lawData managementIntellectual property lawMonopoly (economics)Product managementPublic recordsIntangible assets&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7</name></author>	</entry>

	<entry>
		<id>//en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furvana</id>
		<title>Furvana</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikifur.com/wiki/Furvana"/>
				<updated>2023-09-21T04:29:18Z</updated>
		
		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7: KYS&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Uitgelicht&lt;br /&gt;
IJzeren Poort&lt;br /&gt;
IJzeren Poort&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De IJzeren Poort is een kloofdal in de Donau, dat in ruime zin een traject van 134 km lengte omvat en in enge zin alleen de laatste barrière in dit traject is. Het ligt even voorbij de Roemeense stad Orşova. Sinds begin jaren zeventig bevindt zich hier een stuwdam.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De kloof ligt tussen Roemenië in het noorden en Servië in het zuiden. De rivier scheidt op deze plaats de zuidelijke Karpaten van de noordwestelijke uitlopers van het balkangebergte. (Lees verder)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Etalage&lt;br /&gt;
Susanne Heynemann&lt;br /&gt;
Immuunsysteem&lt;br /&gt;
New York (stad)&lt;br /&gt;
Rhynchocyon udzungwensis&lt;br /&gt;
Constantijn de Grote&lt;br /&gt;
Verenigde Naties&lt;br /&gt;
Johan Cruijff&lt;br /&gt;
Krijt-Paleogeengrens&lt;br /&gt;
Over Wikipedia&lt;br /&gt;
Wikipedia is een online encyclopedie die ernaar streeft informatie te bieden in alle erkende talen ter wereld, die vrij herbruikbaar, objectief en verifieerbaar is. Het project is gebaseerd op vijf basisprincipes. De Nederlandstalige versie startte op 19 juni 2001 en is met meer dan 2,1 miljoen artikelen de op vijf na grootste van circa 330 taalversies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De encyclopedie is vrij bewerkbaar. Dat houdt in dat iedereen tekst en afbeeldingen kan toevoegen of aanpassen, met inachtneming van de basisregels. Voor de bewerkers zijn er diverse hulppagina's beschikbaar. Er is ook een snelcursus voor nieuwelingen. Zaken uitproberen kan in de zandbak en vragen kunnen gesteld worden bij de helpdesk. Voor privacyvragen kunt u hier terecht.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wist je dat ...&lt;br /&gt;
Bargerveen&lt;br /&gt;
... het natuurgebied Bargerveen in Drenthe een restant van ongeveer 2100 hectare hoogveen is van het vroeger vele malen grotere Bourtangermoeras?&lt;br /&gt;
... in de provincie Zeeland niet minder dan 117 dorpen zijn verdwenen in de zee?&lt;br /&gt;
... het verschil tussen dag- en nachttemperatuur op Mercurius zo'n 600 graden is?&lt;br /&gt;
... biomimetici zich laten inspireren door de natuur om menselijke toepassingen uit te vinden of te verbeteren?&lt;br /&gt;
... de Sovjet-Unie in haar bijna zeventigjarige bestaan maar één president heeft gehad?&lt;br /&gt;
Afbeelding&lt;br /&gt;
Noodbiljet met een nominale waarde van 100 miljoen mark, uitgegeven op 21 september 1923 in Trier&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Noodbiljet met een nominale waarde van 100 miljoen mark, uitgegeven op 21 september 1923 in Trier&lt;br /&gt;
Actueel&lt;br /&gt;
Afbeelding&lt;br /&gt;
Stikstofcrisis in Nederland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De stikstofcrisis ontstond in 2019 in Nederland, toen de vergunningsaanvragen van naar schatting 18.000 bouw- en infrastructuurprojecten werden stilgelegd. Volgens de bouwbedrijven zouden 27.000 banen kunnen vervallen. (Lees verder)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Recent overleden&lt;br /&gt;
20 sep	Ruth Fuchs (76), Duits atlete en politica&lt;br /&gt;
20 sep	Erwin Olaf (64), Nederlands fotograaf&lt;br /&gt;
19 sep	Theo Bijlhout (81), Surinaams zanger&lt;br /&gt;
17 sep	Louis Gooren (79), Nederlands endocrinoloog&lt;br /&gt;
16 sep	Wimie Wilhelm (62), Nederlands actrice&lt;br /&gt;
In het nieuws&lt;br /&gt;
19 sep	Aanval in Nagorno-Karabach&lt;br /&gt;
Bij aanvallen door Azerbeidzjaanse troepen op de enclave Nagorno-Karabach vallen volgens de berichten zeker 25 doden en 138 gewonden. De aanval volgt op een negen maanden durende blokkade van de Laçın-corridor.&lt;br /&gt;
11 sep	Verwoestende tropische orkaan in de Middellandse Zee&lt;br /&gt;
Het oosten van Libië wordt zwaar getroffen door storm Daniel. In Derna worden door een dambreuk zeker 900 gebouwen verwoest. In het rampgebied komen ten minste 11.300 mensen om het leven na het instorten van twee stuwdammen, waardoor naar schatting 30 miljoen kubieke meter water vrijkwam.&lt;br /&gt;
8 sep	Aardbeving in Marokko&lt;br /&gt;
In Marokko vallen meer dan 2000 doden bij een aardbeving met een magnitude van 6,8. Veel mensen worden nog vermist. Het epicentrum ligt bij Ighil, 72 km ten zuidwesten van Marrakesh, en de beving is in een groot deel van het land te voelen.&lt;br /&gt;
21 september in de geschiedenis&lt;br /&gt;
1937	De Hobbit&lt;br /&gt;
Eerste publicatie van De Hobbit, geschreven door J.R.R. Tolkien.&lt;br /&gt;
2003	Galileo&lt;br /&gt;
Aan het eind van een bijna 14 jaar durende verkenningstocht stuurt NASA de sonde Galileo de atmosfeer van Jupiter in, waar het toestel wordt verpletterd.&lt;br /&gt;
2012	Project X Haren&lt;br /&gt;
Een uitnodiging op Facebook voor een verjaardagsfeestje mondt uit in een bijeenkomst van duizenden jongeren en rellen.&lt;br /&gt;
Zusterprojecten&lt;br /&gt;
Wikipedia is onderdeel van de Wikimedia Foundation, een non-profitorganisatie, en heeft diverse zusterprojecten die ook van de wikisoftware gebruikmaken:&lt;br /&gt;
WikinieuwsWikinieuws&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije nieuwsbron WikiWoordenboekWikiWoordenboek&lt;br /&gt;
Vrij woordenboek WikibooksWikibooks&lt;br /&gt;
Handleidingen &amp;amp; vrije boeken WikisourceWikisource&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije bibliotheek WikiquoteWikiquote&lt;br /&gt;
Citaten &amp;amp; spreekwoorden WikispeciesWikispecies&lt;br /&gt;
Catalogus van levende wezens WikiversityWikiversity&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije onderwijsprojecten WikivoyageWikivoyage&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije, wereldwijde reisgids CommonsCommons&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije media WikidataWikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Vrije database WikifunctiesWikifuncties&lt;br /&gt;
Bibliotheek met codefuncties Meta-WikiMeta-Wiki&lt;br /&gt;
Coördinatie MediaWikiMediaWiki&lt;br /&gt;
Ontwikkeling wiki-software&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Perscontact  •  Publiekscontact  •  Statistieken&lt;br /&gt;
Categorie: Alles&lt;br /&gt;
Navigatiemenu&lt;br /&gt;
Niet aangemeld&lt;br /&gt;
Overleg&lt;br /&gt;
Bijdragen&lt;br /&gt;
Account aanmaken&lt;br /&gt;
Inloggen&lt;br /&gt;
HoofdpaginaOverleg&lt;br /&gt;
LezenBrontekst bekijkenGeschiedenisZoeken&lt;br /&gt;
Doorzoek Wikipedia&lt;br /&gt;
Hoofdpagina&lt;br /&gt;
Vind een artikel&lt;br /&gt;
Vandaag&lt;br /&gt;
Etalage&lt;br /&gt;
Categorieën&lt;br /&gt;
Recente wijzigingen&lt;br /&gt;
Nieuwe artikelen&lt;br /&gt;
Willekeurige pagina&lt;br /&gt;
Informatie&lt;br /&gt;
Gebruikersportaal&lt;br /&gt;
Snelcursus&lt;br /&gt;
Hulp en contact&lt;br /&gt;
Doneren&lt;br /&gt;
Hulpmiddelen&lt;br /&gt;
Links naar deze pagina&lt;br /&gt;
Gerelateerde wijzigingen&lt;br /&gt;
Bestand uploaden&lt;br /&gt;
Speciale pagina's&lt;br /&gt;
Permanente koppeling&lt;br /&gt;
Paginagegevens&lt;br /&gt;
Deze pagina citeren&lt;br /&gt;
Wikidata-item&lt;br /&gt;
Afdrukken/exporteren&lt;br /&gt;
Boek aanmaken&lt;br /&gt;
Downloaden als PDF&lt;br /&gt;
Afdrukversie&lt;br /&gt;
In andere projecten&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimedia Commons&lt;br /&gt;
MediaWiki&lt;br /&gt;
Meta-Wiki&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimedia Outreach&lt;br /&gt;
Meertalige Wikisource&lt;br /&gt;
Wikispecies&lt;br /&gt;
Wikibooks&lt;br /&gt;
Wikidata&lt;br /&gt;
Wikimania&lt;br /&gt;
Wikinieuws&lt;br /&gt;
Wikiquote&lt;br /&gt;
Wikisource&lt;br /&gt;
Wikivoyage&lt;br /&gt;
WikiWoordenboek&lt;br /&gt;
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In andere talen&lt;br /&gt;
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Nog 322&lt;br /&gt;
Koppelingen bewerken&lt;br /&gt;
Deze pagina is voor het laatst bewerkt op 6 mei 2023 om 22:38.&lt;br /&gt;
De tekst is beschikbaar onder de licentie Creative Commons Naamsvermelding/Gelijk delen, er kunnen aanvullende voorwaarden van toepassing zijn. Zie de gebruiksvoorwaarden voor meer informatie.&lt;br /&gt;
Wikipedia® is een geregistreerd handelsmerk van de Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., een organisatie zonder winstoogmerk.&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>2001:67C:2628:647:6:0:0:B7</name></author>	</entry>

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